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?Chapter Outline I. Overview of Rogers's Person-Centered Theory Although Carl Rogers is most useful known since the founder of client-centered therapy, he also developed an important theory of personality that underscores his strategy to therapy. II. Biography of Carl Rogers Carl Rogers was born into a devoutly religious family in a very Chicago suburb in 1902. After the family moved to your farm near Chicago, Carl became interested in scientific farming and learned to appreciate the scientific method. When he graduated from the University of Wisconsin, Rogers intended to become a minister, but he gave up that notion and completed a Ph.D. in psychology from Columbia University in 1931. In 1940, after nearly a dozen years absent from an academic life working as a clinician, he took a position at Ohio State University. Later, he held positions within the University of Chicago as well as University of Wisconsin. In 1964, he moved to California where he helped found the Center for Studies within the Person. He died in 1987 at age 85. III. Person-Centered Theory Rogers carefully crafted his person-centered theory of personality to meet his possess demands for a structural product that could explain and predict outcomes of client-centered therapy. However, the theory has implications far beyond the therapeutic setting. A. General Assumptions Person-centered theory rests on two simple assumptions: (1) the formative tendency, which states that all matter, the two organic and inorganic, tends to evolve from simpler to additional complex sorts, and (two) an actualizing tendency, which suggests that all living things, this includes humans, tend to move toward completion, or fulfillment of potentials. However, in order for people (or plants and animals) to become actualized, certain identifiable conditions must be current. For a person, these conditions include a relationship with another person who is genuine, or congruent, and who demonstrates full acceptance and empathy for that person. B. The Self and Self-Actualization A perception of self or personal identity begins to emerge during infancy, and, once established, it helps a person to strive toward self-actualization, which is definitely a subsystem for the actualization tendency and refers to the tendency to actualize the self as perceived in awareness. The self has two subsystems: (1) the self-concept, which involves all those aspects of one's identity that are perceived in awareness, and (two) the ideal self, or our see of our self as we would like to be or aspire to be. Once formed, the self concept tends to resist change, and gaps somewhere between it along with the ideal self result in incongruence and multiple concentrations of psychopathology. C. Awareness People are aware of both equally their self-concept and their ideal self, although awareness really need not be accurate or in a big degree. Rogers saw people as having experiences on three stages of awareness: (1) those that are symbolized below the threshold of awareness and are either ignored or denied, that's, subceived, or not allowed into the self-concept; (two) those that are distorted or reshaped to fit it into an present self-concept; and (3) those that are consistent with the self-concept and thus are accurately symbolized and freely admitted to the self-structure. Any know-how not consistent with the self-concept-even positive experiences-will be distorted or denied. D. Needs The two important human needs are maintenance and enhancement, but people also will need positive regard and self-regard. Maintenance needs include those for food, air, and safety, however they also include our tendency to resist change and to keep our self-concept as it is. Enhancement needs include needs to grow and to realize one's 100 % human potential. As awareness of self emerges, an infant begins to obtain positive regard from another person-that is, to be loved or accepted. People naturally value those experiences that satisfy their needs for positive regard, but, unfortunately, this value in many instances becomes extra powerful than the reward they obtain for meeting their organismic needs. This sets up the condition of incongruence, which is encountered when important organismic needs are denied or distorted in favor of needs to be loved or accepted. As a result of experiences with positive regard, people acquire the desire for self-regard, which they acquire only after they perceive that someone else cares for them and values them. Once established, however, self-regard becomes autonomous and no longer dependent on another's continuous positive evaluation. E. Conditions of Worth Most people are not unconditionally accepted. Instead, they acquire conditions of worth; that is definitely, they experience that they are loved and accepted only when and if they meet the conditions established by others. F. Psychological Stagnation Once the organismic self and therefore the self-concept are at variance with 1 another, a person may working experience incongruence, which comprises vulnerability, threat, defensiveness, and even disorganization. The greater the incongruence amongst self-concept also, the organismic go through, the additional vulnerable that person becomes. Anxiety exists whenever the person becomes dimly aware in the discrepancy amongst organismic practical experience and self-concept, whereas threat is encountered whenever the person becomes greater clearly aware of this incongruence. To prevent incongruence, people react with defensiveness, typically from the sorts of distortion and denial. With distortion, people misinterpret an working experience so that it fits into their self-concept; with denial, people refuse to help the adventure into awareness. When people's defenses fail to operate properly, their behavior becomes disorganized or psychotic. With disorganization, people in certain cases behave consistently with their organismic have and oftentimes in accordance with their shattered self-concept. IV. Psychotherapy For client-centered psychotherapy to be effective, certain conditions are necessary: A vulnerable client must have contact of some duration which has a counselor who is congruent, and who demonstrates unconditional positive regard and listens with empathy to the client. The client must in turn perceive the congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy belonging to the therapist. If these conditions are current, then the strategy of therapy will take location and certain predictable outcomes will result. A. Conditions Three conditions are crucial to client-centered therapy, and Rogers called them the necessary and sufficient conditions for therapeutic growth. The for starters is counselor congruence, or a therapist whose organismic experiences are matched by an awareness and by the ability and willingness to openly express these feelings. Congruence is a lot more common than the opposite two conditions simply because it is truly a relatively stable characteristic in the therapist, whereas the opposite two conditions are minimal into a unique therapeutic relationship. Unconditional positive regard exists in the event the therapist accepts the client without conditions or qualifications. Empathic listening is the therapist's ability to perception the feelings of the client and also to communicate these perceptions so that the client knows that another person has entered into his or her world of feelings without prejudice, projection, or evaluation. B. Routine Rogers saw the routine of therapeutic change as taking put in seven stages: (1) clients are unwilling to communicate anything about themselves; (two) they discuss only external events and other people; (3) they begin to talk about themselves, but nonetheless as an object; (four) they discuss effective emotions that they have felt with the past; (5) they begin to express current feelings; (6) they freely let into awareness those experiences that have been previously denied or distorted; and (7) they know-how irreversible change and growth. C. Outcomes When client-centered therapy is successful, clients become even more congruent, less defensive, additional open to practical knowledge, and much more realistic. The gap amongst their ideal self and their true self narrows and, as a consequence, clients expertise less physiological and psychological tension. Finally, clients' interpersonal relationships improve considering the fact that they are extra accepting of self and others. V. The Person of Tomorrow Rogers was vitally interested within the psychologically healthy person, called the "fully functioning person" or the "person of tomorrow." Rogers listed seven characteristics on the person of tomorrow. The person of tomorrow (1) is able to adjust to change, (two) is open to knowledge, (3) is able to live fully inside of the moment, (four) is able to have harmonious relations with others, (5) is a great deal more integrated with no artificial boundaries involving conscious and unconscious processes, (6) has a simple trust of human nature, and (7) enjoys a greater richness in life. The factors have implications both equally with the individual and for society. VI. Philosophy of Science Rogers agreed with Maslow that scientists must care about and be involved inside phenomena they study which psychologists should limit their objectivity and precision to their methodology, not to the generation of hypotheses or to the communication of research findings. VII. The Chicago Study When he taught within the University of Chicago, Rogers, along with colleagues and graduate students, conducted a sophisticated and complex study over the effectiveness of psychotherapy. A. Hypotheses This study tested four broad hypotheses. As a consequence of therapy (1) clients will become a great deal more aware of their feelings and experiences, (two) the gap involving the real self along with the ideal self will lessen; (3) clients' behavior will become a bit more socialized and mature; and (four) clients will become both equally alot more self-accepting plus much more accepting of others. B. Method Participants were being adults who sought therapy within the University of Chicago counseling center. Experimenters asked 50 percent of these to wait sixty days before receiving therapy when beginning therapy with the opposite fifty percent. Also, they tested a control group of "normals" who were being matched with the therapy group. This control group was also divided into a wait group together with a non-wait group. C. Findings Rogers and his associates found that the therapy group-but not the wait group-showed a lessening in the gap among real self and ideal self. They also found that clients who improved during therapy-but not those rated as least improved-showed changes in social behavior, as noted by friends. D. Summary of Successes Although client-centered therapy was successful in changing clients, it was not successful in bringing them to the degree with the fully functioning persons or even to the degree of "normal" psychological health. VIII. Related Research Far more just lately, other researchers have investigated Rogers's facilitative conditions the two exterior therapy and inside therapy. A. Facilitative Conditions Exterior Therapy Around the United Kingdom, Duncan Cramer has conducted a series of studies investigating the therapeutic qualities of Rogers's facilitative conditions in interpersonal relationships outside the house of therapy. Cramer found positive relationships concerning self-esteem, as measured by the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, as well as four facilitative conditions that make up the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory-level of regard, unconditionality of regard, congruence, and empathy. Moreover, the direction on the relationship strongly suggested that Rogers's facilitative conditions precede the acquisition of higher degrees of self-esteem. B. Facilitative Conditions and Couples Therapy In Belgium, Alfons Vansteenwegen (1996) utilized a revised type in the Barrett-Lennard to determine if Rogers's facilitative conditions related to success during couples therapy. He found that client-centered couples therapy can bring about positive changes in couples, which many of these changes lasted for at least seven years after therapy. IX. Critique of Rogers Rogers's person-centered theory is just one within the most carefully constructed of all personality theories, and it meets relatively very well just about every on the six criteria of the useful theory. It rates very very high on internal consistency and parsimony, big on its ability to be falsified and to generate research, and high-average on its ability to organize knowledge and to serve as a guide to the practitioner. X. Concept of Humanity Rogers believed that humans have the capacity to change and grow-provided that certain necessary and sufficient conditions are current. Therefore, his theory rates very significant on optimism. Additionally, it rates superior on 100 % free choice, teleology, conscious motivation, social influences, as well as uniqueness on the individual. grademiners